A hypofunction of the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor has been implicated in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia. Compelling evidence of altered NMDA receptor subunit expression in the schizophrenic brain has not, however, so far emerged. Rats reared in isolation exhibit several characteristics, including disturbed sensory gating, which resemble those seen in schizophrenia. To explore the possibility that NMDA receptor dysfunction may contribute to the behavioral and neurochemical consequences of rearing rats in isolation, we compared NMDA receptor subunit expression in brains of rats which were housed in isolation and which displayed a deficit in prepulse inhibition of the acoustic startle response with that of socially housed controls. An initial microarray analysis revealed a 1.26-fold increase in NR2A transcript in the prefrontal cortex, but not in the nucleus accumbens, of rats reared in isolation compared with those housed socially. In contrast, NR1, NR2B, NR2C, NR2D, NR3A, and NR3B subunit expression was unchanged in either brain area. In a second cohort of animals, in situ hybridization revealed increased NR2A mRNA expression in the medial prefrontal cortex, an observation that was substantiated by increased [(3)H]CGP39653 binding suggesting that NR2A receptor subunit protein expression was also elevated in the medial prefrontal cortex of the same animals. No changes in expression of NR1 or NR2B subunits were observed at both mRNA and protein level. Altered NR2A subunit expression in the medial prefrontal cortex of rats reared in isolation suggests that NMDA receptor dysfunction may contribute to the underlying pathophysiology of this preclinical model of aspects of schizophrenia.

The field of clinical proteomics offers opportunities to identify new disease biomarkers in body fluids, cells and tissues. These biomarkers can be used in clinical applications for diagnosis, stratification of patients for specific treatment, or therapy monitoring. New protein array formats and improved spectrometry technologies have brought these analyses to a level with potential for use in clinical diagnostics. The nature of the human body fluid proteome with its large dynamic range of protein concentrations presents problems with quantitation. The extreme complexity of the proteome in body fluids presents enormous challenges and requires the establishment of standard operating procedures for handling of specimens, increasing sensitivity for detection and bioinformatical tools for distribution of proteomic data into the public domain. From studies of in vitro diagnostics, especially in clinical chemistry, it is evident that most errors occur in the preanalytical phase and during implementation of the diagnostic strategy. This is also true for clinical proteomics, and especially for fluid proteomics because of the multiple pretreatment processes. These processes include depletion of high-abundance proteins from plasma or enrichment processes for urine where biological variation or differences in proteolytic activities in the sample along with preanalytical variables such as inter- and intra-assay variability will likely influence the results of proteomics studies. However, before proteomic analysis can be introduced at a broader level into the clinical setting, standardization of the preanalytical phase including patient preparation, sample collection, sample preparation, sample storage, measurement and data analysis needs to be improved. In this review, we discuss the recent technological advances and applications that fulfil the criteria for clinical proteomics, with the focus on fluid proteomics. These advances relate to preanalytical factors, analytical standardization and quality-control measures required for effective implementation into routine laboratory testing in order to generate clinically useful information. With new disease biomarker candidates, it will be crucial to design and perform clinical studies that can identify novel diagnostic strategies based on these techniques, and to validate their impact on clinical decision-making.

Cohesin-mediated sister chromatid cohesion is essential for chromosome segregation and post-replicative DNA repair. In addition, evidence from model organisms and from human genetics suggests that cohesin is involved in the control of gene expression. This non-canonical role has recently been rationalized by the findings that mammalian cohesin complexes are recruited to a subset of DNase I hypersensitive sites and to conserved noncoding sequences by the DNA-binding protein CTCF. CTCF functions at insulators (which control interactions between enhancers and promoters) and at boundary elements (which demarcate regions of distinct chromatin structure), and cohesin contributes to its enhancer-blocking activity. The underlying mechanisms remain unknown, and the full spectrum of cohesin functions remains to be determined. Here we show that cohesin forms the topological and mechanistic basis for cell-type-specific long-range chromosomal interactions in cis at the developmentally regulated cytokine locus IFNG. Hence, the ability of cohesin to constrain chromosome topology is used not only for the purpose of sister chromatid cohesion, but also to dynamically define the spatial conformation of specific loci. This new aspect of cohesin function is probably important for normal development and disease.

CD4(+) T cells use the chemokine receptor CCR7 to home to and migrate within lymphoid tissue, where T-cell activation takes place. Using primary T-cell receptor (TCR)-transgenic (tg) CD4(+) T cells, we explored the effect of CCR7 ligands, in particular CCL21, on T-cell activation. We found that the presence of CCL21 during early time points strongly increased in vitro T-cell proliferation after TCR stimulation, correlating with increased expression of early activation markers. CCL21 costimulation resulted in increased Ras- and Rac-GTP formation and enhanced phosphorylation of Akt, MEK, and ERK but not p38 or JNK. Kinase-dead PI3Kdelta(D910A/D910A) or PI3Kgamma-deficient TCR-tg CD4(+) T cells showed similar responsiveness to CCL21 costimulation as control CD4(+) T cells. Conversely, deficiency in the Rac guanine exchange factor DOCK2 significantly impaired CCL21-mediated costimulation in TCR-tg CD4(+) T cells, concomitant with impaired Rac- but not Ras-GTP formation. Using lymph node slices for live monitoring of T-cell behavior and activation, we found that G protein-coupled receptor signaling was required for early CD69 expression but not for Ca(2+) signaling. Our data suggest that the presence of CCL21 during early TCR signaling lowers the activation threshold through Ras- and Rac-dependent pathways leading to increased ERK phosphorylation.

The following report selects and summarises some of the conclusions and recommendations generated throughout a series of workshops and discussions that have lead to the publication of the Science Policy Briefing (SPB) Nr. 35, published by the European Science Foundation. (Large parts of the present text are directly based on the ESF SPB. Detailed recommendations with regard to specific application areas are not given here but can be found in the SPB. Issues related to mathematical modelling, including training and the need for an infrastructure supporting modelling are discussed in greater detail in the present text.)The numerous reports and publications about the advances within the rapidly growing field of systems biology have led to a plethora of alternative definitions for key concepts. Here, with 'mathematical modelling' the authors refer to the modelling and simulation of subcellular, cellular and macro-scale phenomena, using primarily methods from dynamical systems theory. The aim of such models is encoding and testing hypotheses about mechanisms underlying the functioning of cells. Typical examples are models for molecular networks, where the behaviour of cells is expressed in terms of quantitative changes in the levels of transcripts and gene products. Bioinformatics provides essential complementary tools, including procedures for pattern recognition, machine learning, statistical modelling (testing for differences, searching for associations and correlations) and secondary data extracted from databases.Dynamical systems theory is the natural language to investigate complex biological systems demonstrating nonlinear spatio-temporal behaviour. However, the generation of experimental data suitable to parameterise, calibrate and validate such models is often time consuming and expensive or not even possible with the technology available today. In our report, we use the term 'computational model' when mathematical models are complemented with information generated from bioinformatics resources. Hence, 'the model' is, in reality, an integrated collection of data and models from various (possibly heterogeneous) sources. The present report focuses on a selection of topics, which were identified as appropriate case studies for medical systems biology, and adopts a particular perspective which the authors consider important. We strongly believe that mathematical modelling represents a natural language with which to integrate data at various levels and, in doing so, to provide insight into complex diseases: 1. Modelling necessitates the statement of explicit hypotheses, a process which often enhances comprehension of the biological system and can uncover critical points where understanding is lacking. 2. Simulations can reveal hidden patterns and/or counter-intuitive mechanisms in complex systems. 3. Theoretical thinking and mathematical modelling constitute powerful tools to integrate and make sense of the biological and clinical information being generated and, more importantly, to generate new hypotheses that can then be tested in the laboratory.Medical Systems Biology projects carried out recently across Europe have revealed a need for action: 4. While the need for mathematical modelling and interdisciplinary collaborations is becoming widely recognised in the biological sciences, with substantial implications for the training and research funding mechanisms within this area, the medical sciences have yet to follow this lead. 5. To achieve major breakthroughs in Medical Systems Biology, existing academic funding schemes for large-scale projects need to be reconsidered. 6. The hesitant stance of the pharmaceutical industry towards major investment in systems biology research has to be addressed. 7. Leading medical journals should be encouraged to promote mathematical modelling.

Phospholipase D activity has been extensively implicated in the regulation of the actin cytoskeleton. Through this regulation the enzyme controls a number of physiological functions such as cell migration and adhesion and, it also is implicated in the regulation of membrane trafficking. The two phospholipase Ds are closely implicated with the control of the ARF and Rho families of small GTPases. In this article it is proposed that PLD2 plays the role of 'master regulator' and in an ill-defined manner regulates Rho function, PLD1 activity is downstream of this activation, however the generated phosphatidic acid controls changes in cytoskeletal organisation through its regulation of phosphatidylinositol-4-phosphate-5-kinase activity.

The hallmarks of epigenetics--the memory of defining earlier developmental events and the distinction of active and inactive genes--are exemplified by imprinted genes. In this article, I shall consider the imprinted Gnas locus in some detail. Gnas encodes the stimulatory G-protein subunit, Gsalpha, an essential intermediate between receptor coupling and cyclic adenosine monophosphate generation. It provides an excellent illustration of the pleiotropic effects of imprinted genes, particularly on skeletal growth and metabolism, and is a powerful example of the conflicting effects of imprinted genes with opposing patterns of imprinting. I shall describe the effects of Gsalpha deficiency in humans and the knowledge gained from genetic manipulation in the mouse. Finally, given the pervasive effects of imprinted genes, I shall discuss the likelihood that epigenetic deregulation, for example of imprinted genes, could contribute to the developmental programming of chronic adult diseases.

Protein microarrays are versatile tools for parallel, miniaturized screening of binding events involving large numbers of immobilized proteins in a time- and cost-effective manner. They are increasingly applied for high-throughput protein analyses in many research areas, such as protein interactions, expression profiling and target discovery. While conventionally made by the spotting of purified proteins, recent advances in technology have made it possible to produce protein microarrays through in situ cell-free synthesis directly from corresponding DNA arrays. This article reviews recent developments in the generation of protein microarrays and their applications in proteomics and diagnostics.

The molecular processes that govern the first cell lineage decisions after fertilization also dictate the developmental potency of stem cells derived from the early mouse embryo. Our understanding of these mechanisms is therefore instrumental for stem cell biology and regenerative medicine. A number of transcription factors are known that determine a cell's fate towards either the embryonic or extraembryonic trophoblast lineages. Recent insights have shown that the definitive fixation of cell lineage fate is achieved by an epigenetic restriction through DNA methylation of the transcription factor Elf5. Lineage crossover can be induced, however, by manipulation of lineage determinants and gatekeepers, or their epigenetic regulation. Here we summarize the accumulating number of experimental conditions where such 'transdifferentiation' is observed that shed light onto the genetic and epigenetic pathways involved in lineage separation and the developmental potential of stem cells.

A key component of any synthetic biology effort is the use of quantitative models. These models and their corresponding simulations allow optimization of a system design, as well as guiding their subsequent analysis. Once a domain mostly reserved for experts, dynamical modelling of gene regulatory and reaction networks has been an area of growth over the last decade. There has been a concomitant increase in the number of software tools and standards, thereby facilitating model exchange and reuse. We give here an overview of the model creation and analysis processes as well as some software tools in common use. Using markup language to encode the model and associated annotation, we describe the mining of components, their integration in relational models, formularization and parametrization. Evaluation of simulation results and validation of the model close the systems biology 'loop'.

The Drosophila TRPC channels TRP and TRPL are the founding members of the TRP superfamily of ion channels, which are important components of calcium influx pathways in virtually all cells. The activation of these channels in the context of fly phototransduction is one of the few in vivo models for TRPC channel activation and has served as a paradigm for understanding TRPC function. TRP and TRPL are activated by G-protein coupled PIP(2) hydrolysis through a mechanism in which IP(3) receptor mediated calcium release seems dispensable. Recent analysis has provided compelling evidence that one or more PIP(2) generated lipid messengers, as well as PIP(2) itself, are essential for regulating TRP and TRPL activity. Evidence on the role of these lipid elements in regulating TRP and TRPL activity is discussed in this review.

Tau inclusions play a key role in the pathogenesis of tauopathies. Altered tau levels have been detected in retina and optic nerve of patients with glaucoma, suggesting the possibility of shared pathogenic mechanisms with tauopathies. Here we report that hyperphosphorylated transgenic tau accumulates in the nerve fibre layer and, from 2 months of age, aggregates into filamentous inclusions in retinal ganglion cells of human P301S tau transgenic mice. Axonopathy and accumulation of hyperphosphorylated tau in the nerve fibre layer preceded inclusion formation. Hyperphosphorylated tau and tau inclusions were also detected in cultured retinal explants from 5-month-old transgenic mice. Axonal outgrowth was similar in transgenic and wild-type retinal explants under basal conditions. However, when exposed to growth-promoting stimuli, axon elongation was enhanced in explants from wild-type but not transgenic mice, indicating that the presence of abnormal tau can impair stimulated axonal outgrowth. These findings suggest that the retina is a good model system for investigating tau-driven neurodegeneration and for assessing potential pharmacological modifiers for tauopathies.

Animals modify food-seeking behavior and metabolism according to perceived food availability. Here we show that, in the roundworm C. elegans, release of neuropeptides from interneurons that are directly postsynaptic to olfactory, gustatory, and thermosensory neurons coordinately regulates behavior and metabolism. Animals lacking these neuropeptides, encoded by the flp-18 gene, are defective in chemosensation and foraging, accumulate excess fat, and exhibit reduced oxygen consumption. Two G protein-coupled receptors of the NPY/RFamide family, NPR-4 and NPR-5, are activated by FLP-18 peptides in vitro and exhibit mutant phenotypes that recapitulate those of flp-18 mutants. Our data suggest that sensory input can coordinately regulate behavior and metabolism via NPY/RFamide-like receptors. They suggest that peptidergic feedback from interneurons regulates sensory neuron activity, and that at least some of this communication occurs extrasynaptically. Extrasynaptic neuropeptide signaling may greatly increase the computational capacity of neural circuits.

There is increasing concern about the neurodegenerative and behavioral consequences of ozone pollution in industrialized urban centers throughout the world and that women may be more susceptible to brain neurodegenerative disorders. In the present study we have investigated the effects of chronic (30 or 60 days) exposure to ozone on olfactory perception and memory and on levels of lipid peroxidation, alpha and beta estrogen receptors and dopamine beta-hydroxylase in the olfactory bulb in ovariectomized female rats. The ability of 17beta-estradiol to prevent these effects was then assessed. Results showed that ozone exposure for 30 or 60 days impaired formation/retention of a selective olfactory recognition memory 120 min after exposure to a juvenile stimulus animal with the effect at 60 days being significantly greater than at 30 days. They also showed impaired speed in locating a buried chocolate reward after 60 days of ozone exposure indicating some loss of olfactory perception. These functional impairments could all be prevented by coincident estradiol treatment. In the olfactory bulb, levels of lipid peroxidation were increased at both 30- and 60-day time-points and numbers of cells with immunohistochemical staining for alpha and beta estrogen receptors, and dopamine beta-hydroxylase were reduced as were alpha and beta estrogen receptor protein levels. These effects were prevented by estradiol treatment. Oxidative stress damage caused by chronic exposure to ozone does therefore impair olfactory perception and social recognition memory and may do so by reducing noradrenergic and estrogen receptor activity in the olfactory bulb. That these effects can be prevented by estradiol treatment suggests increased susceptibility to neurodegenerative disorders in aging women may be contributed to by reduced estrogen levels post-menopause.

Phosphatidic acid (PA) is postulated to have both structural and signaling functions during membrane dynamics in animal cells. In this study, we show that before a critical time period during rhabdomere biogenesis in Drosophila melanogaster photoreceptors, elevated levels of PA disrupt membrane transport to the apical domain. Lipidomic analysis shows that this effect is associated with an increase in the abundance of a single, relatively minor molecular species of PA. These transport defects are dependent on the activation state of Arf1. Transport defects via PA generated by phospholipase D require the activity of type I phosphatidylinositol (PI) 4 phosphate 5 kinase, are phenocopied by knockdown of PI 4 kinase, and are associated with normal endoplasmic reticulum to Golgi transport. We propose that PA levels are critical for apical membrane transport events required for rhabdomere biogenesis.

Phospholipase D (PLD) catalyses the hydrolysis of phosphatidylcholine to generate phosphatidic acid and choline. Historically, much PLD work has been conducted in mammalian settings although genes encoding enzymes of this family have been identified in all eukaryotic organisms. Recently, important insights on PLD function are emerging from work in yeast, but much less is known about PLD in other organisms. In this review we will summarize what is known about phospholipase D in several model organisms, including C. elegans, D. discoideum, D. rerio and D. melanogaster. In the cases where knockouts are available (C. elegans, Dictyostelium and Drosophila) the PLD gene(s) appear not to be essential for viability, but several studies are beginning to identify pathways where this activity has a role. Given that the proteins in model organisms are very similar to their mammalian counterparts, we expect that future studies in model organisms will complement and extend ongoing work in mammalian settings. At the end of this review we will also provide a short update on phosphatidic acid targets, a topic last reviewed in 2006.

In inflammation, pain is regulated by a balance of pro- and analgesic mediators. Analgesic mediators include opioid peptides which are secreted by neutrophils at the site of inflammation, leading to activation of opioid receptors on peripheral sensory neurons. In humans, local opioids and opioid peptides significantly downregulate postoperative as well as arthritic pain. In rats, inflammatory pain is induced by intraplantar injection of heat inactivated Mycobacterium butyricum, a component of complete Freund's adjuvant. We hypothesized that mycobacterially derived formyl peptide receptor (FPR) and/or toll like receptor (TLR) agonists could activate neutrophils, leading to opioid peptide release and inhibition of inflammatory pain. In complete Freund's adjuvant-induced inflammation, thermal and mechanical nociceptive thresholds of the paw were quantified (Hargreaves and Randall-Selitto methods, respectively). Withdrawal time to heat was decreased following systemic neutrophil depletion as well as local injection of opioid receptor antagonists or anti-opioid peptide (i.e. Met-enkephalin, beta-endorphin) antibodies indicating an increase in pain. In vitro, opioid peptide release from human and rat neutrophils was measured by radioimmunoassay. Met-enkephalin release was triggered by Mycobacterium butyricum and formyl peptides but not by TLR-2 or TLR-4 agonists. Mycobacterium butyricum induced a rise in intracellular calcium as determined by FURA loading and calcium imaging. Opioid peptide release was blocked by intracellular calcium chelation as well as phosphoinositol-3-kinase inhibition. The FPR antagonists Boc-FLFLF and cyclosporine H reduced opioid peptide release in vitro and increased inflammatory pain in vivo while TLR 2/4 did not appear to be involved. In summary, mycobacteria activate FPR on neutrophils, resulting in tonic secretion of opioid peptides from neutrophils and in a decrease in inflammatory pain. Future therapeutic strategies may aim at selective FPR agonists to boost endogenous analgesia.

Deimination is the post-translational conversion of arginine residues to citrulline. It has been implicated as a causative factor in autoimmune diseases such as multiple sclerosis and rheumatoid arthritis and more recently, as a marker of neurodegeneration. We have investigated the effect of the post-translational modification of arginine residues on the structure of recombinant ovine prion protein. Deiminated prion protein exhibited biophysical properties characteristic of the scrapie-associated conformer of prion protein viz. an increased beta-sheet secondary structure, congophilic structures indicative of amyloid and proteinase K resistance which could be templated onto normal unmodified prion protein. In the light of these findings, a potential role of post-translational modifications to prion protein in disease initiation or propagation is discussed.

We describe how recent advances in stem cell research may be interpreted by various regulatory regimes and use Canada as a model to demonstrate how broad-based prohibitive legislation can unintentionally restrict research direction. We encourage scientists and policymakers to collaborate to ensure a clear regulatory framework that accommodates future advances.

GIMAP (GTPase of the immunity-associated protein family) proteins are a family of putative GTPases believed to be regulators of cell death in lymphomyeloid cells. GIMAP1 was the first reported member of this gene family, identified as a gene up-regulated at the RNA level in the spleens of mice infected with the malarial parasite, Plasmodium chabaudi.

IGF activity is regulated tightly by a family of IGF binding proteins (IGFBPs). IGFBP-5 is the most conserved of these and is up-regulated significantly during differentiation of several key lineages and in some cancers. The function of IGFBP-5 in these physiological and pathological situations is unclear, however, several IGFBP-5 sequence motifs and studies in vitro suggest IGF-independent actions. Therefore, we aimed to compare the phenotypes of mice overexpressing wild-type Igfbp5 or an N-terminal mutant Igfbp5 with negligible IGF binding affinity. Both significantly inhibited growth, even at low expression levels. Even though wild-type IGFBP-5 severely disrupted the IGF axis, we found no evidence for interaction of mutant IGFBP-5 with the IGF system. Further, overexpression of wild-type IGFBP-5 rescued the lethal phenotype induced by "excess" IGF-II in type 2 receptor-null mice; mutant IGFBP-5 overexpression could not. Therefore, wild-type IGFBP-5 provides a very effective mechanism for the inhibition of IGF activity and a powerful in vivo mechanism to inhibit IGF activity in pathologies such as cancer. This study is also the first to suggest significant IGF-independent actions for IGFBP-5 during development.

Studies in animals have reported that normalized or elevated Cu levels can inhibit or even remove Alzheimer's disease-related pathological plaques and exert a desirable amyloid-modifying effect. We tested engineered nanocarriers composed of diverse core-shell architectures to modulate Cu levels under physiological conditions through bypassing the cellular Cu uptake systems. Two different nanocarrier systems were able to transport Cu across the plasma membrane of yeast or higher eukaryotic cells, CS-NPs (core-shell nanoparticles) and CMS-NPs (core-multishell nanoparticles). Intracellular Cu levels could be increased up to 3-fold above normal with a sublethal dose of carriers. Both types of carriers released their bound guest molecules into the cytosolic compartment where they were accessible for the Cu-dependent enzyme SOD1. In particular, CS-NPs reduced Abeta levels and targeted intracellular organelles more efficiently than CMS-NPs. Fluorescently labeled CMS-NPs unraveled a cellular uptake mechanism, which depended on clathrin-mediated endocytosis in an energy-dependent manner. In contrast, the transport of CS-NPs was most likely driven by a concentration gradient. Overall, nanocarriers depending on the nature of the surrounding shell functioned by mediating import of Cu across cellular membranes, increased levels of bioavailable Cu, and affected Abeta turnover. Our studies illustrate that Cu-charged nanocarriers can achieve a reasonable metal ion specificity and represent an alternative to metal-complexing agents. The results demonstrate that carrier strategies have potential for the treatment of metal ion deficiency disorders.